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preceding non-Islamic period, in the mean time retaining several features of pre-Islamic civilization. Its origin was middle-class. In the Central Javanese civilization of the nine teenth century, on the other hand, Muslim religion was taken for granted. The pujan,gas were mostly interested in the remains of pre- Islamic belletristic literature. Their books were meant to be reading-matter for gentle men. Eighteenth and nineteenth century renais sance authors were masters in adapting the products of former periods of literature, as far as known to them. Some Old Javanese epic kakawins were turned into modern Javanese poems. Historical, romantic and theatrical literature flourished. The wayaij theatre became the favourite pastime at Court, and plays were composed by Kings and princes. Originating from the interior of the coun try, Surakarta renaissance literature lacked stimulating contacts with foreign cultures oversea, like its predecessor in Central Java, Pasisir literature, had. Neither international Islam nor interinsular Malay literature were appreciated at Court. Javanese-Balinese let ters, which in the eighteenth century were flourishing in Bali, were unknown in Central Java. Eigtheenth and nineteenth century renais sance literature was heavily indebted to eigh teenth century Pasisir literature, especially of the Central and East Javanese maritime districts. After a long period of dynastic troubles and internal wars, which were de trimental to the mercantile towns on the seacoast, peace was finally restored in Cen tral and East Java in the middle of the eigh teenth century. Probably since that time

traffic by prao on the river Beijawan was instrumental in establishing contacts between Surakarta and Grësik, the ancient centre of the decaying East Javanese Pasisir culture. It is a fact that the Surakarta scholars’ know ledge of the admired Old Javanese kakawins was second-hand. Manuscripts written in Pasisir districts were intermediaries. The superior Balinese codexes of Old Javanese texts were not available in Central Java. In the nineteenth century Surakarta authors were stimulated by the presence of three Dutch scholars, Winter, Gericke and Wil- kens, who were studying Javanese language and literature in Central Java. Through their intermediary some knowledge of European culture spread at Court. The Bible was trans lated into Javanese. The second half of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century were the period of development of Surakarta renaissance letters into a common Javanese belletristic literature characterized by its predilection for the wayaij theatre and wayat} plays. In consequence of the maintenance of peace and order in the interior of the country and an unprecedented increase of traffic by means of the railways, Surakarta (and, in a minor degree, also Yogyakarta) Court cul ture developed into a common spiritual sphere of the priyayi class, the gentlefolk of Java. Probably never before the nineteenth century such a sense of cultural unity was prevalent among the members of the well- educated classes in the interior of the coun try. Henceforth the Court culture radiating from Surakarta and Yogyakarta was con sidered by educated people as the only gen uine Javanese civilization. Notwithstanding the early nineteenth cen-